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Women’s Rights and Social Change: Egypt, Japan, and Beyond

Day 2: Japan Wasn’t Always Like This

女性の権利と社会変化:エジプト、日本、そしてその先 ― 第2日:日本はいつもこうではなかった

Quiet vintage office desk with a resignation letter suggesting forced retirement for women

Today, it would sound extraordinary for a Japanese company to tell a woman, “You can work here only until you get married.” It might sound even more shocking to tell male employees that they could work until age 55 while requiring female employees to retire at 30. Yet rules like these existed in Japan only a few generations ago—and women had to go to court to challenge them.

今日、日本の会社が女性に「結婚するまでしかここでは働けない」と言うのは、並外れて聞こえるでしょう。男性社員には55歳まで働けると言い、女性社員には30歳で退職を求めると聞けば、さらに衝撃的に聞こえるかもしれません。しかし、こうした規則はほんの数世代前の日本に存在し、女性たちはそれらに異議を唱えるために裁判所へ向かわなければなりませんでした。

One important case began in 1963. Sumitomo Cement had a policy requiring female employees to leave the company when they married. A woman challenged this mandatory marriage-retirement system, and in 1966 a court ruled in her favor. The case became an important step in challenging unequal treatment of women at work.

重要な事件の一つは1963年に始まりました。住友セメントには、女性社員が結婚すると会社を辞めなければならない方針がありました。ある女性がこの強制的な結婚退職制度に異議を唱え、1966年に裁判所は彼女の勝訴を言い渡しました。この事件は、職場における女性への不平等な扱いへの挑戦における重要な一歩となりました。

The victory did not end the problem. In 1967, another lawsuit challenged a company rule under which men retired at 55 but women at 30. During the 1960s and 1970s, other cases questioned policies requiring women to leave after giving birth, after having a second child, or simply at an earlier age than men. Some women also challenged dismissal rules that treated female workers less favorably. Not every case was successful, but the legal battles gradually changed what employers could defend as normal practice.

この勝利で問題は終わりませんでした。1967年、別の訴訟が、男性は55歳で退職するのに女性は30歳で退職するという会社規則に異議を唱えました。1960年代と1970年代には、出産後、第二子のあと、あるいは単に男性より早い年齢で女性に退職を求める方針を問う他の事件もありました。一部の女性は、女性労働者をより不利に扱う解雇規則にも異議を唱えました。すべての事件が成功したわけではありませんが、法的闘争は、雇用主が通常の慣行として弁護できることを徐々に変えていきました。

What makes this history surprising is that Japan had already adopted a new Constitution after World War II. The Constitution, which took effect in 1947, established equality under the law and the principle of equality between men and women. Japanese women had also voted in a national election for the first time in April 1946, when about 13.8 million women cast ballots and 39 women were elected to the House of Representatives. Legal and political change, however, did not immediately transform the workplace.

この歴史を驚くべきものにしているのは、日本が第二次世界大戦後にすでに新しい憲法を採択していたことです。1947年に施行された憲法は、法の下の平等と男女平等の原則を定めました。日本人女性も1946年4月に初めて国政選挙で投票し、約1,380万人の女性が投票し、39人の女性が衆議院に選出されました。しかし、法的・政治的変化は、すぐに職場を変えることはありませんでした。

Many older workplace norms were based on a particular idea of family life: men were expected to remain in full-time employment and support the family, while women were often expected to leave paid work after marriage or childbirth. Such expectations could influence hiring, salaries, job assignments and career opportunities. A rule did not have to appear strange to everyone in order to be unfair. Sometimes it became visible as discrimination only when someone decided to challenge it.

多くの古い職場規範は、特定の家族生活の考えに基づいていました。男性はフルタイムで働き家族を支えることが期待され、女性は結婚や出産の後に有給の仕事を辞めることがしばしば期待されていました。そうした期待は、採用、給与、職務割り当て、キャリアの機会に影響しえました。規則は、不公平であるために万人に奇妙に見える必要はありませんでした。時としてそれは、誰かが異議を唱えると決めたときに初めて、差別として見えるようになったのです。

By around 1980, according to the Tokyo Bar Association, it had become largely established that women could not be forced into early retirement simply because they were women. The debate then moved to other areas, including differences in pay and opportunities for promotion. In 1985, Japan enacted the Equal Employment Opportunity Law, which took effect the following year. The original law was limited in some areas and was later strengthened, but it marked an important shift toward treating equality at work as a national responsibility.

東京弁護士会によれば、1980年頃までに、女性であるというだけで早期退職を強いられることはできないことが、おおむね確立されていました。議論はその後、賃金の差や昇進の機会など、他の領域へ移りました。1985年、日本は男女雇用機会均等法を制定し、翌年に施行されました。当初の法律は一部の領域で限定的で、後に強化されましたが、職場の平等を国家の責任として扱う方向への重要な転換を示しました。

Change continued after that. Women challenged systems that made it difficult for them to advance into senior positions, and sexual harassment also became recognized as a workplace issue through legal cases and later regulation. At the same time, Japan did not suddenly become free of gender inequality. Laws can prohibit discrimination, but companies, families and individuals may continue to follow older assumptions for years—or even generations.

その後も変化は続きました。女性は上級職への昇進を難しくする制度に異議を唱え、セクシュアル・ハラスメントも、法的事件と後の規制を通じて職場の問題として認識されるようになりました。同時に、日本が突然ジェンダー不平等から解放されたわけではありません。法律は差別を禁じることができますが、企業、家族、個人は何年も、あるいは何世代も、古い前提に従い続けることがあります。

That brings us back to the hotel case in Egypt. The two countries have very different histories, cultures and legal systems, so the cases should not be treated as identical. But they reveal a similar problem: rights on paper and rights in everyday life are not always the same thing. Japan’s experience shows that practices which once seemed ordinary can later look astonishingly unfair. Social change often begins when someone asks a simple question: “Why should this rule exist at all?”

それが私たちをエジプトのホテル事件へと連れ戻します。両国は歴史、文化、法制度が大きく異なるため、事件を同一視すべきではありません。しかしそれらは似た問題を明らかにします。紙の上の権利と日常生活の権利は、いつも同じものではないということです。日本の経験は、かつて普通に見えた慣行が、後に驚くほど不公平に見えうることを示しています。社会変化はしばしば、誰かが単純な問いを投げかけたときに始まります。「そもそも、なぜこの規則が存在する必要があるのか?」

Vocabulary

  1. retire — to stop working permanently, usually because of age. Example: She plans to retire after working at the company for forty years.
  2. mandatory — required by a rule or law; not optional. Example: Safety training is mandatory for all new employees.
  3. unequal treatment — treating one person or group less favorably than another without a fair reason. Example: The workers complained about unequal treatment in promotion decisions.
  4. lawsuit — a legal case brought to a court by a person or organization. Example: She filed a lawsuit against the company after losing her job.
  5. cast a ballot — to vote in an election. Example: Millions of citizens cast a ballot in the national election.
  6. norm — a way of behaving or thinking that is considered usual or expected in a society or group. Example: Working for one company for many years was once a common social norm in Japan.
  7. promotion — a move to a more important or higher-level position at work. Example: She received a promotion after leading several successful projects.
  8. enact — to officially make a law. Example: Parliament enacted new legislation to protect workers.
  9. assumption — an idea that people accept as true without always questioning it. Example: The assumption that mothers should always leave work after childbirth has changed greatly.

Comprehension Questions

  1. What policy was challenged in the Sumitomo Cement case?
    1. Women received lower pensions than men.
    2. Female employees were required to leave when they married.
    3. Married men could not become managers.
    4. Women were not allowed to vote.

    住友セメント事件で異議を唱えられた方針は何ですか?

  2. What unusual retirement rule was challenged in 1967?
    1. Everyone had to retire at 40.
    2. Men retired at 30 while women retired at 55.
    3. Men could work until 55 while women had to retire at 30.
    4. Married employees had to retire immediately.

    1967年に異議を唱えられた、珍しい退職規則は何ですか?

  3. Why is the history after 1947 important?
    1. Japan had already established constitutional equality, but discriminatory workplace practices continued.
    2. The Constitution required women to stop working after marriage.
    3. Women did not receive voting rights until the 1980s.
    4. Companies immediately ended all gender discrimination.

    1947年以降の歴史が重要なのはなぜですか?

  4. What happened to workplace equality debates around the 1980s?
    1. They disappeared completely.
    2. They expanded from retirement rules to issues such as pay and promotion.
    3. They focused only on voting rights.
    4. Courts stopped hearing employment cases.

    1980年代頃、職場平等をめぐる議論はどうなりましたか?

  5. What is the main connection between the Japanese cases and the Egyptian hotel case?
    1. Japan and Egypt have identical legal systems.
    2. Both countries introduced the same law.
    3. Social customs can continue even after legal principles have changed.
    4. Women in both countries were prohibited from working.

    日本の事件とエジプトのホテル事件の主なつながりは何ですか?

Discussion Questions

  1. Why do you think discriminatory rules can seem “normal” to people who live with them for many years?

    差別的な規則が、長年それに生きる人々にとって「普通」に見えうるのはなぜだと思いますか?

  2. Which usually changes first: laws or social attitudes? Can you think of examples?

    通常どちらが先に変わりますか。法律ですか、社会的態度ですか?例を思い浮かべられますか?

  3. How important are individual lawsuits in changing society?

    社会を変えるうえで、個人の訴訟はどれほど重要ですか?

  4. Are there practices today that future generations may look back on and find surprisingly unfair?

    将来の世代が振り返って驚くほど不公平だと感じるかもしれない、今日の慣行はありますか?

  5. What can Japan’s history teach us about judging gender inequality in other countries today?

    日本の歴史は、今日の他国のジェンダー不平等を判断することについて、私たちに何を教えられますか?

Speaking Practice

How Does Social Change Happen?

Speak for about one minute.

社会変化はどう起こるのか?約1分間話してください。

Try to include:

  • one surprising workplace rule that existed in Japan

    日本に存在した驚くべき職場規則を一つ

  • how women challenged such rules

    女性がそうした規則にどう異議を唱えたか

  • why the 1947 Constitution did not immediately end discrimination

    1947年の憲法がすぐに差別を終わらせなかった理由

  • how laws and social attitudes can change at different speeds

    法律と社会的態度が異なる速度で変わりうること

  • one connection between Japan and the Egyptian hotel case

    日本とエジプトのホテル事件のつながりを一つ