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Migrant Labor in the Gulf: Work, Freedom, and Reform

Day 1: Who Controls a Migrant Worker’s Job?

湾岸の移住労働者:仕事、自由、そして改革 ― 第1日:移住労働者の仕事を誰が支配するのか

Temporary worker housing and boots at a Gulf construction site suggesting migrant labor dependence

Imagine borrowing thousands of dollars to travel abroad for a job. When you arrive, you discover that the work is different from what you were promised. Leaving the job may mean losing your income, but it may also threaten your legal right to remain in the country. For millions of migrant workers in the Gulf, this kind of dependence has been associated with a system commonly known as kafala.

海外で働くために何千ドルも借りる場面を想像してください。到着すると、仕事が約束されたものと違うとわかります。仕事を辞めることは収入を失うことを意味するかもしれませんが、その国に合法的に留まる権利を脅かすことにもなりえます。湾岸の何百万人もの移住労働者にとって、こうした依存は、一般にカファラとして知られる制度と結びついてきました。

Kafala is usually translated as a sponsorship system. Under traditional versions of the system, a migrant worker needs a local sponsor, or kafeel, who is usually the employer. The worker’s employment and residency status are closely connected to that sponsor. The exact rules differ from country to country, and several Gulf governments have introduced major reforms. Kafala is therefore not one identical law used everywhere. It is better understood as a group of immigration, employment, and administrative arrangements that can give employers considerable power over migrant workers. The International Labour Organization has said that restrictive sponsorship arrangements can limit workers’ ability to leave an employer and move freely within the labor market. (国際労働機関)

カファラは通常、スポンサーシップ制度と訳されます。制度の伝統的な形では、移住労働者は通常雇用主である地元のスポンサー、すなわちカフィールを必要とします。労働者の雇用と在留資格は、そのスポンサーと密接につながっています。正確な規則は国ごとに異なり、いくつかの湾岸政府は大きな改革を導入してきました。したがってカファラは、どこでも使われる同一の一つの法律ではありません。移住労働者に対して雇用主にかなりの権力を与えうる、移民、雇用、行政上の取り決めの一群として理解した方がよいものです。国際労働機関は、制限的なスポンサーシップの取り決めが、労働者が雇用主を離れ労働市場内を自由に移動する能力を制限しうると述べています。(国際労働機関

There is a reason such sponsorship systems developed. Gulf economies have long depended heavily on workers recruited from countries such as India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and the Philippines. Someone must take legal responsibility for bringing a foreign worker into the country and arranging the worker’s legal stay. The problem begins when responsibility turns into control. If an employer has influence over both a person’s job and the documents that allow that person to remain legally in the country, the relationship between worker and employer becomes unusually unequal. (国際労働機関)

そうしたスポンサーシップ制度が発展した理由があります。湾岸経済は長く、インド、バングラデシュ、ネパール、パキスタン、フィリピンなどの国から募集された労働者に大きく依存してきました。誰かが、外国人労働者を国に連れてきて、その労働者の合法的滞在を手配する法的責任を負わなければなりません。問題は、責任が支配に変わるときに始まります。雇用主が、人の仕事とその人が合法的に国に留まることを許す書類の両方に影響力を持つなら、労働者と雇用主の関係は異常に不平等になります。(国際労働機関

One important issue is job mobility—the ability to leave one employer and work for another. In traditional kafala systems, workers could face serious restrictions when trying to change employers, and in some countries permission from an employer was also connected to leaving the country. Rules have changed significantly in places such as Qatar and Saudi Arabia, but the central issue remains important: how much control should an employer have over a foreign worker’s ability to change jobs or leave? The ILO argues that greater labor-market mobility is an important part of reducing the risks created by restrictive sponsorship systems. (国際労働機関)

重要な問題の一つは、職業移動性—一人の雇用主を離れ、別の雇用主のために働く能力です。伝統的なカファラ制度では、労働者は雇用主を変えようとするときに深刻な制限に直面しえ、一部の国では雇用主の許可が出国にもつながっていました。カタールやサウジアラビアなどの場所では規則が大きく変わりましたが、中心的な問題はなお重要です。雇用主は、外国人労働者が仕事を変えたり出国したりする能力にどれだけの支配を持つべきか。ILOは、より大きな労働市場の移動性が、制限的なスポンサーシップ制度が生むリスクを減らす重要な一部だと主張しています。(国際労働機関

For some workers, however, dependence begins before they even arrive in the Gulf. Migrants may pay large recruitment fees to agents in their home countries in order to obtain a job. In a 2024 investigation of migrant workers in Saudi Arabia, Human Rights Watch reported that 128 of 130 workers it asked had paid recruitment costs, ranging from about $600 to more than $2,400. A nationally representative survey cited in the same report found that Bangladeshi workers migrating to Saudi Arabia paid an average of $3,715—almost twenty times the reported average monthly wage of $188. Some workers borrowed money at very high interest rates or used family assets to finance the journey. (ヒューマン・ライツ・ウォッチ)

しかし一部の労働者にとって、依存は湾岸に到着する前から始まります。移民は仕事を得るために、母国の仲介業者に大きな募集手数料を払うことがあります。サウジアラビアの移住労働者に関する2024年の調査で、ヒューマン・ライツ・ウォッチは、尋ねた130人のうち128人が募集費用を払っており、約600ドルから2,400ドル超の範囲だったと報告しました。同じ報告書で引用された全国を代表する調査では、サウジアラビアへ移住するバングラデシュ人労働者が平均3,715ドルを払ったことがわかりました。報告された平均月給188ドルのほぼ20倍です。一部の労働者は非常に高い金利でお金を借りたり、旅費を賄うために家族の資産を使ったりしました。(ヒューマン・ライツ・ウォッチ

Debt changes the meaning of “choice.” A worker who owes several thousand dollars may not be able simply to return home when conditions are bad. Leaving without earning enough to repay the loan may place the worker’s entire family under financial pressure. When debt becomes so severe that a person feels unable to stop working, it can contribute to debt bondage, which international labor standards recognize as a form of forced labor. Recruitment debt can therefore strengthen the employer’s leverage even when the debt itself was created by an agent in the worker’s home country. (ヒューマン・ライツ・ウォッチ)

借金は「選択」の意味を変えます。何千ドルも借りている労働者は、条件が悪いときに単に帰国できるとは限りません。ローンを返済するのに十分な収入を得ずに離れることは、労働者の家族全体を経済的圧力の下に置くかもしれません。借金がひどくなり、人が働くのを止められないと感じるとき、それは債務奴隷制につながりえ、国際労働基準はそれを強制労働の一形態と認めています。したがって募集の借金は、借金自体が労働者の母国の仲介業者によって作られた場合でも、雇用主の交渉力を強めうるのです。(ヒューマン・ライツ・ウォッチ

Other forms of dependence can make the situation worse. Human-rights organizations have documented delayed or unpaid wages, contracts that differ from what workers were originally promised, passport confiscation, and problems maintaining valid residence documents. Some of these practices are already illegal. In Saudi Arabia, for example, employers are legally required to bear recruitment costs, and confiscating workers’ passports is prohibited. Yet Human Rights Watch has reported that violations continue, showing why enforcement can matter as much as the law itself. (ヒューマン・ライツ・ウォッチ)

他の形態の依存が状況を悪化させることもあります。人権団体は、遅延または未払いの賃金、もともと約束されたものと異なる契約、パスポートの没収、有効な在留書類の維持の問題を記録してきました。これらの慣行の一部はすでに違法です。たとえばサウジアラビアでは、雇用主が募集費用を負担することが法的に求められ、労働者のパスポートを没収することは禁止されています。しかしヒューマン・ライツ・ウォッチは違反が続いていると報告しており、執行が法律そのものと同じくらい重要でありうる理由を示しています。(ヒューマン・ライツ・ウォッチ

This is why the kafala debate is not simply about “bad employers.” It is about a structure of dependence. A worker may depend on one employment relationship for wages, legal residence, mobility, and the ability to repay a large debt at home. The employer may also hold much more information, money, and access to government procedures. A contract may look voluntary on paper, but the important question is how much real freedom each side has after the worker arrives. If losing your boss can also mean losing your legal status, how free are you to say, “I quit”?

だからこそカファラをめぐる議論は、単に「悪い雇用主」の話ではありません。それは依存の構造についてのものです。労働者は、賃金、合法的在留、移動性、そして母国の大きな借金を返済する能力について、一つの雇用関係に依存することがあります。雇用主はまた、はるかに多くの情報、金銭、政府手続きへのアクセスを持つかもしれません。契約は紙の上では自発的に見えるかもしれませんが、重要な問いは、労働者が到着した後、双方にどれだけの本当の自由があるかです。上司を失うことが法的地位を失うことも意味するなら、「辞めます」と言える自由はどれほどあるのでしょうか?

Vocabulary

  1. sponsorship system — a system in which a person or organization takes legal responsibility for a foreign worker’s employment or residence. Example: The country has changed parts of its sponsorship system to give migrant workers more freedom.
  2. residency status — a person’s legal position that determines whether he or she has the right to live in a country. Example: Losing a job can sometimes affect a foreign worker’s residency status.
  3. job mobility — the ability of workers to move from one job or employer to another. Example: Greater job mobility can give employees more bargaining power.
  4. recruitment fee — money charged for arranging or obtaining a job. Example: The worker borrowed money to pay a recruitment fee before leaving his home country.
  5. debt bondage — a situation in which a person is forced or pressured to continue working because of a debt that is difficult to repay. Example: Excessive recruitment costs can place vulnerable workers at risk of debt bondage.
  6. leverage — power or influence that can be used to make another person do something. Example: The company had considerable leverage because the worker depended on it for both income and accommodation.
  7. enforcement — the process of making sure that laws or rules are actually obeyed. Example: A strong labor law may provide little protection if enforcement is weak.
  8. dependence — a situation in which someone needs another person or system in order to survive, function, or obtain something important. Example: Financial dependence can make it difficult for an employee to leave an abusive workplace.

Comprehension Questions

  1. What is the kafala system mainly designed to connect?
    1. A migrant worker with a university
    2. A migrant worker’s employment and legal residence with a sponsor
    3. A worker’s salary with the price of oil
    4. A foreign company with a local government

    カファラ制度は主に何をつなぐよう設計されていますか?

  2. Why does the article say that kafala is not simply one law?
    1. It exists only as an informal tradition.
    2. Every employer creates a different system.
    3. It involves several legal and administrative arrangements that vary between countries.
    4. Gulf countries have no immigration laws.

    記事がカファラは単に一つの法律ではないと言うのはなぜですか?

  3. Why can recruitment debt make it difficult for a worker to leave a bad job?
    1. Workers are prohibited from having bank accounts.
    2. Returning home without earning enough may leave the worker and family with a large debt.
    3. All recruitment loans must be repaid to the employer.
    4. Migrants lose their nationality if they leave early.

    募集の借金が、労働者が悪い仕事を離れることを難しくしうるのはなぜですか?

  4. What does the Saudi example show about labor laws?
    1. Illegal recruitment fees have completely disappeared.
    2. Employers are legally allowed to keep workers’ passports.
    3. Laws may prohibit abusive practices while those practices still occur.
    4. Recruitment agencies are not regulated at all.

    サウジの例は労働法について何を示していますか?

  5. What is the main argument of the article?
    1. All Gulf employers mistreat migrant workers.
    2. Migration to the Gulf should be prohibited.
    3. Kafala can create a structure in which several forms of dependence give employers unusually strong power over workers.
    4. Migrant workers usually earn less abroad than at home.

    記事の主な主張は何ですか?

Discussion Questions

  1. Why might a worker accept a job abroad even if the employment system gives the employer considerable power?

    雇用制度が雇用主にかなりの権力を与えても、労働者が海外の仕事を受け入れるのはなぜですか?

  2. Should a worker’s legal right to live in a country depend on one particular employer? Why or why not?

    ある国に住む労働者の法的権利は、特定の一人の雇用主に依存すべきですか?それはなぜ/なぜそうでないのですか?

  3. Who should be responsible for preventing excessive recruitment fees: the destination country, the worker’s home country, employers, recruitment agencies, or all of them?

    過度な募集手数料を防ぐ責任は誰にあるべきですか。受け入れ国、労働者の母国、雇用主、募集業者、それともすべてですか?

  4. Can an employment contract be truly voluntary if a worker has a large debt and few realistic alternatives?

    労働者が大きな借金と現実的な選択肢をほとんど持たない場合、雇用契約は本当に自発的でありえますか?

  5. Why is enforcement sometimes more important than simply passing a new law?

    執行が、単に新しい法律を通すことより時として重要なのはなぜですか?

Speaking Practice

How Can a Job Become a Form of Dependence?

Speak for about one minute.

仕事はどう依存の一形態になりうるか?約1分間話してください。

Try to include:

  • what the kafala system is

    カファラ制度とは何か

  • how employment can be connected to legal residence

    雇用が合法的在留とどうつながるか

  • why recruitment debt matters

    募集の借金がなぜ重要か

  • what job mobility means

    職業移動性とは何か

  • why changing a law may not immediately change a worker’s real situation

    法律を変えても労働者の現実の状況がすぐに変わらないかもしれない理由